DURATION

approx. 1 hour

FORMAT

Interactive + text-based

The goals of this module

Understanding the meaning of words we tend to use when we talk about migrations

Being able to distinguish the different terms in the lexical field of migration

What is it about?

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FOREIGNER

FOREIGNER

A foreigner is not necessarily a migrant because they can be born in a country with parents of a foreign nationality. Being a foreigner doesn’t always last a lifetime because a foreigner can gain the country’s nationality if they respect the said country’s naturalisation criteria.

In 2022, there were 5,3 million foreigners in France. In 2022 there were 0.8M non migrant foreigners in France.

INSEE, estimations de population 2023 https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/3633212

In 2023, the foreign population in Italy was 5 million and 50 thousand units.

ISTAT, DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS – YEAR 2022 https://www.istat.it/en/archivio/283234

In January 2022, there were around 5,5 million foreigners residing in Spain.

INE, 2022 – Preview of the Continuous Register Statistics January 1st, 2022 https://www.ine.es/en/prensa/pad_2022_p_en.pdf

MIGRANT

MIGRANT

How many migrants are there in the world in your opinion?

In 2022, there were 281 million international migrants.

In Europe, in 2022, 4 million immigrants had entered the EU (336 000 in France, 318 000 in Italy, 887 000 in Spain).

What connotation do you see with that word? Why use this word instead of foreigner?

Migrants tend to cover the migration trajectory as a whole. It has not only the perspective of the host or origin country but adopts a global perspective. Migration trajectories are not from point A to point B but are complex trajectories with possible returns, with transits… A migration route can last several months, even years and ‘migrant’ also comprehends the transit aspect of the experience. When you ask someone with a migrant background ‘when do you stop being a migrant?’, the answer can often be ‘never’. Because even when you have reached a country of settlement, the journey is not finished. You have administrative, economic, social and cultural challenges that can last all life long.

In terms of connotation, the term is not neutral either. The grammatical form of the word (‘ant’ → gerundive grammatical form) translates a notion of everlasting movement. The word can give an impression of wandering and is often understood that way. ‘Migrant’ can represent wandering bodies with no purpose in the common imaginary.

EMIGRANT

EMIGRANT

In your opinion, is this figure often mediatised or used to talk about migrations?

Curiously enough, until the contemporary era, the kingdoms were more concerned about who was leaving their territories than who was entering. It was more difficult to leave a place than to enter a place. In Europe, the situation has completely changed especially with the arrival of the Schengen space, which faces the contradiction of promoting free circulation of EU citizens but reinforcing border control for non EU citizens.

In your opinion, how many emigrants are there from your country?

In 2021, there were 55 000 emigrants who had left France.

In Italy, in 2021, there were 1,423,000 internal transfers (+6.7%), over 318,000 immigrants (+28.6%) and 158,000 emigrations (-1%).

ISTAT.it Migrazioni https://www.istat.it/it/archivio/migrazioni

In 2022, 220.000 people emigrated Spain, 12.4% having always lived in Spain, the rest having resided abroad beforehand.

In which field is this word still used?

In surveys, in demographic count of data because it enables to assess the net migration which can be positive (immigration > emigration) or negative (emigration > immigration). In France, the net migration is positive and has been for over 2 centuries. France is a historically immigration country.

IMMIGRANT

IMMIGRANT

How many immigrants are there in your country?

In 2022, the proportion of immigrants in the French population was 10.3% (7.0 million)

(First nationalities: Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, United States, China).

As of 1 January 2022, there were approximately 5 million foreign citizens residing in Italy, making up 8.5% of the resident population. 83.8% of foreign citizens resident in Italy are concentrated in the Centre-North. The number of non-EU citizens legally present in Italy at the beginning of 2022 is approximately 3.561 million. In 2021, compared to the previous year, the new residence permits issued more than doubled (+127%). In 2022, the unemployment rate of foreign citizens (12.0%) is higher than that of Italian citizens (7.6%). In 2022, the employment rate of foreigners (64.2%) is still lower than that of natives (64.9%), despite the stronger growth.

In 2022, the share of immigrants in the Spanish population was 11,7% (5,6 million).

https://www.ine.es/en/prensa/cp_j2022_p_en.pdf

UNDOCUMENTED MIGRANT

UNDOCUMENTED MIGRANT

A foreign person who doesn’t have a valid residence permit for the territory in which they are present.

The far-right movements tend to call these persons ‘clandestine’. Medias and public discourses also tend to use the word ‘illegal migrants’. Beware that nobody can be illegal, only an action can be. This also participates in the amalgam between migration and criminality.

What other words tend to be used to describe the people in that administrative vacuum?
France

Ironically, some researchers also make the pun of “sans papiers = cent papiers” (100 papers) because they end up having even more bureaucracy than any other citizen as they need to constantly prove their existence.

Italy

The latest estimates calculated by ISMU show a moderate growth of the foreign population living in Italy: as of March, 1st 2023, it has reached more than 6 millions individuals in 2022, 88,000 more than in 2021. On the contrary, the number of undocumented people has decreased, standing at 506,000, as opposed to 519,000 estimated in the previous year (-2.5%).

In the Italian context, the use of the term ‘clandestino’ in journalistic language and public debate is still widespread. The term ‘clandestino’ recalls a situation of illegality and is often used, legally incorrectly, to refer to someone who is awaiting asylum. However, this term exists neither in international definitions nor in EU law. Carta di Roma, an association of journalists committed to correct information on migration issues, has pointed out that this word is denigrating and is one of the mainstays of hate speech at the political, institutional and social level.

In the 11th Report of the Charter of Rome 2023 Notizie a memoria, the frequency of use of ‘clandestine’ in the press and social media is analysed. In the period 2013-2023 in print headlines, ‘clandestine’ appeared 1,714 times, 68 times in the first 10 months of 2023, with a penetration in 1% of headlines.

The trend is downward. The newspapers that used this word most frequently in 2023 express a clear editorial line against immigration. An analysis of the lexicon of journalists and ordinary people on social media, on the other hand, shows that there is an upward trend on Facebook/Meta public pages over the period 2013-2023. Furthermore, it is noted that the world of journalism has increased the use of ‘clandestine’ on its Facebook pages, contrary to the lexicon chosen for print headlines.

How can a person fall into that category?
France

It can be a person who has used up all their administrative appeals. The undocumented migrants often fall into the box of “can neither be deported nor regularised”. (In general only 15% of the OQTF are executed). The law on immigrants has been complexified over the years (22 laws voted since 1990 on immigration and asylum). With the restriction of the length of residence permits and the criteria to have them (the length used to be several years but now, it is more and more 1 year, which puts foreigners constantly in the stress of the renewal. Prefectures are often late in the treatment of the files, which are more and more consistent because of more and more restrictions and it can put people who have legally the right to reside in an irregular administrative status. There is also a discrepancy between the way prefectures deal with one file (a same file can be treated differently according to the district they are in – for example, some prefectures ask for documents that are not enumerated in the law).

What are the rights of undocumented migrants?
France

Undocumented migrants often end up working illegally and in an informal economy. (“au noir” or under “alias”). The fact that they are unprotected by the work regulation system makes them even more vulnerable to exploitation and abuse. One of the biggest absurdities of the 2023 law passed by the French government is the article on the ‘tense professions’ (métiers en tension) allowing migrants working in certain areas considered as ‘tense’ (with not enough workers) to be regularised. However, the list that sets up the eligible ‘tense’ jobs doesn’t take into account all the areas that are filled by undeclared jobs (construction work, care work, cleaning work)… which are hugely occupied by undocumented migrants and who thus won’t benefit from a regularisation despite the fact that they fill a gap of the French economy.

However, they have access (though limited) to vital rights: the right to live, the right to have access to emergency shelter (via samu social), the right to have access to minimum healthcare (Aide Médicale d’Etat). They also have the right to get married and have a family.

Italy

The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union guarantees to undocumented migrants the right to human dignity, education, fair and just working conditions, healthcare and justice (with the right to an effective remedy and to a fair trial). Because of their irregular migration status, they are vulnerable to exploitation and abuse in the workplace. They also often face legal and practical barriers in getting access to basic services, such as healthcare, education and access to justice. They may face discrimination on the basis of their race or ethnicity and gender-based violence.

In Italy, the system of ‘caporalato’ is widespread, a term referring to the illegal brokering, recruitment and organisation of labour as well as labour exploitation (mainly) in agriculture, which frequently affects irregular migrants, leading to the erosion of workers’ rights and protections.

Spain

The Spanish Arraigo Social allows migrants, even if the arrival in Spain was illegal, under special circumstances to apply for temporary residence status after 3 to 5 years.

ASYLUM SEEKER

ASYLUM SEEKER

In which context do you use this word?

‘Asylum seeker’ is an administrative status and can be used when talking about the asylum procedure. This administrative status falls into specific EU regulations (and less the international human rights law) but some countries may also add specific rights or duties on their territories.

How many asylum seekers in the world?

5,4 million asylum seekers in the world in 2022.

167 432 demandes à l’OFPRA en 2023 (145 522 premières demandes et 21 910 nouvelles demandes (comprenant les demandes de réexamen, de réouverture et les demandes d’asile introduites par des Dublinés qui ont été transférés dans un autre Etat-membre et qui sollicitent de nouveau l’asile en France)) – 25,7% de taux de protection + 21,1% de taux de protection CNDA.

How does an asylum procedure look like?

Asylum institutions in France: GUDA/Prefecture (Registration) → OFPRA (1st examination) → CNDA (Appeal) // OFII (Familial reunification / material reception conditions)

Different procedures depending on your country of origin or the countries from which you have passed: the normal procedure (which can last 6 months to 10 months approximately), the accelerated procedure and the DUBLIN procedure.

OFPRA: https://www.ofpra.gouv.fr/

It’s possible for you to submit an asylum request to the Police Office, which will provide pre-prepared forms where the person will have to explain the reasons for requesting refugee status; providing any other information or documentation in your possession, supporting the reasons for the request.

In order to register an asylum application, it is necessary to go to the Police Immigration Office which will provide pre-prepared forms in which the person will have to explain the reasons for requesting refugee status, providing any other information or documentation and supporting the reasons for the request. The request will then be forwarded to the Territorial Commission for the Recognition of International Protection, which has the task of assessing it.

The form to be filled out is called ‘C3’, if needed, can be filled with the support of an interpreter.

An asylum seeker has the right to be welcomed in a special centre, to have a provisional residence permit and to remain in Italy without leaving the Italian territory. Two months after completing the ‘C3’ the person is entitled to work regularly in Italy. The Territorial Commission may grant refugee status, subsidiary protection or adopt a negative decision. In the latter case, the Commission could still grant an additional form of protection called special protection, in case there would still be a risk to life in case of returning to the country of origin. It’s possible to get free legal assistance and to appeal the negative decision.

Prefettura, Ufficio Territoriale del Governo di RoMA: https://www.prefettura.it/roma/contenuti/Richiesta_di_asilo-4936.htm

https://www.unhcr.org/it/wp-content/uploads/sites/97/2022/06/italiano.pdf

An asylum registration has to be made at either an authorised Immigration office, a police station, or a Civil Guard station. After the registration an asylum interview will be scheduled. Until the interview, the applicant is not allowed to leave Spain. After the interview, the applicant receives a temporary residence paper (“Hoja Blanca”) and the Spanish state has 1 month to review the application. If there is no news after 1 month, the application is considered temporarily granted with the state studying the case. The Spanish state is required to provide a reply after 9 months or needs to renew the temporary residence permit.

How do the authorities deliberate on the outcome of the procedure?

The administration looks at the coherence of the storytelling, they have investigators specialised in specific territories, they also investigate social media profiles to see if the story is in line with this kind of ‘proof’. All documentation proving a fear of persecution (a threat letter, a justice decision…) are also examined. The auditor of an asylum interview is usually specialised on the geopolitics of the country of origin of the person and has some basic knowledge of the languages of that country even though a translator has to be present as well. After using different methodologies to testify the veracity of the story, they have to align it to asylum law and see if the applicant falls into the criteria of an international protection.

What is the country of origin of the asylum seekers?

5 first countries of nationality of the asylum seekers in France (Afghanistan, Guinea, Turkey, Ivory Coast, Bangladesh).

In Italy, Syrians, Afghans, Turks and Venezuelans submitted the largest number of asylum applications: together, they accounted for almost 40 per cent of all applications submitted in EU Member States in 2022.

Consilium Europa – https://www.consilium.europa.eu/it/infographics/asylum-applications-eu/

The majority of asylum seekers in Spain in 2023, came from South America, with Venezuela, Colombia, and Peru as the top three countries. The country of most of the granted applications were from Mali, Afghanistan, and Syria, with most of the rejected applicants being from Colombia, Morocco, and Peru.

What are the rights of the asylum seekers?

EU regulation: Asylum seekers have a right to material reception conditions (CMA in French) that enables them to have access to housing, to receive the asylum seeker allocation (ADA in French) and a right to stay in the territory of their procedure (certificate of asylum seeker counting as a provisional residence permit). They also have a right to have a translator in the language of their choice during the audition.

In reality, these rights are not always respected as the Conseil d’Etat has stated that if the State or the Dispositif National d’Accueil (DNA) didn’t have the resources to shelter everyone, it was enough justification to not effectively shelter asylum seekers. Asylum seekers can have access to work only 6 months after the beginning of their asylum procedure (if they haven’t passed in front of the OFPRA yet).

Applicants for international protection have the right to reside on Italian territory for the duration of the recognition procedure, in reception conditions designed to guarantee them a dignified standard of living. But the increase in arrivals and recent government regulations generate uncertainty in the reception system. This situation contributes to increased public hostility towards asylum seekers and refugees. People who have obtained one of the protections have the right to a residence permit: five years for refugee status and subsidiary protection, two years for special protection (all renewable). In addition they are entitled to the right to work, to study, to have medical assistance and family reunification. It is possible to apply for a document/authorisation to travel and circulate in Europe for up to 90 days; it is also valid in non-European states with the exception of the country of origin.

Rights of asylum seekers in Spain are highly dependent on the status of their application. All asylum seekers who have been officially registered have the right to public education, medical care, and housing (in case there is a lack of financial resources). 6 months after their official asylum interview (if no news and no rejection of the registration has been sent), the asylum seeker is allowed to legally work in Spain. In case their registration is granted, they are allowed to apply for citizenship after 5 years.

REFUGEE

REFUGEE

When do we use the word ‘refugee’?

In common language, a refugee is someone who has applied for asylum in a foreign country and has been recognised as a refugee. It thus refers to administrative status. However, the word ‘refugee’ can also be used as a broader word, for people who have found refuge (whether it is juridical or not) in another country.

How many refugees are there?

In the world, they are 36,4 million in 2023.

According to the Interior Ministry, 155,754 migrants arrived in Italy in 2023, up from 103,846 in 2022. August saw the highest number of monthly landings, with 25,673 people reaching Italian shores.

In 2023 there were 350,000 refugees in Italy, 0.6% of the entire population.

ETIAS: https://etias.com/articles/italy-migrant-surge-2023

https://www.centroastalli.it/rifugiati-in-italia-2

In 2023, 163.220 migrants applied in Spain, at the end of 2023 around 106.000 were still in the process of being granted or rejected. Depending on the type of protection granted/ applied for, the approval rate is between 17 to 40%.

AIDA Country Report on Spain – 2023 Update – https://ecre.org/aida-country-report-on-spain-2023-update/

What are the rights of the refugees?

Refugees are protected by international law from the possible persecutions that could have occurred in their country of origin. They have the same basic rights as the national citizens (except some particular rights such as voting or accessing national work positions). They have a right to a 10-year residence permit if they don’t go back to their country of origin.

Has the definition of ‘refugee’ evolved since the 1951 Geneva Convention?

The 1951 Geneva Convention was written in a particular context – that of the Cold War and some politicians and sociologists such as Karen Akoka analyse the adoption of that definition for refugee as a victory for the West Bloc as it puts into a stronger position the notion of individuality. ‘Refugee’ was a way to protect individuals fleeing communist regimes. The 1951 Geneva Convention is the binding legal document of reference and because it is an international treaty, it cannot be changed. The EU regulation or the State regulation must be in sync with the Geneva Convention. However, there are some more flexible parts in the definition such as ‘membership of a particular social group’ which the jurisprudence of each country has framed.

Karen Akoka (2020) L’asile et l’exil, une histoire de la distinction entre réfugié et migrant, La Découverte

What kind of persecution can fall into that umbrella criterion to become a refugee?

Since a few years ago, being persecuted because having an LGBTQIA+ identity has been accepted to fall into that category. Same for forced marriages or risk of excision (having already been excised is not a criterion to become a refugee). In some countries being a woman for instance in Afghanistan is also a criterion in itself that falls into the category of ‘membership of a particular social group’ but it is not the case in France for instance.

Can all the people living in a war zone have a refugee status?

No. It is only if a person flees because of the specific categories dictated by the Geneva Convention that they can obtain refugee status. For the people fleeing a war zone, they can have a subsidiary status (4 year residence permit and a bit less rights) only if they live in a zone where there is massive and blind violence (the appreciation of the type of violence is up to the hosting administration).

REJECTED ASYLUM SEEKER

REJECTED ASYLUM SEEKER

Is there a final appeal that is possible?

There can only be a reassessment of the asylum file if the person has new elements to bring to their story but it is very rare.

Are many asylum seekers rejected?

In 2023, the rate of agreement on final decisions (OFPRA and CNDA, granting of asylum or subsidiary protection) was 44.6% (France).

Are there any other ways to have a regularisation?

The rejected asylum seekers often become undocumented migrants. There are few legal channels to obtain another residence permit (in case of an illness, or being a parent of a French child etc.) but they are very restrictive. Since the 2023 law, there is the project to assign an “Obligation de Quitter le Territoire Français (OQTF)” as soon as the asylum is rejected.

Some rejected asylum seekers go back to a life of errance and might try to go to another European country to seek survival.

Most asylum applications are rejected: 56% in 2022. With many denials and long detention times, the number of detainees will increase. Already in 2022, there were 6,383 transits.

In 2022, around 43% of open asylum applications were rejected. Around 11.7% of applications were granted, with the percentage in between still being processed into 2023.

DISPLACED PERSON

DISPLACED PERSON

It is actually more natural to flee in your own country first before making the step to cross an international border. It is mostly the case for environmental migrants for instance.

What are the main factors of internal displacements?

68.3 million people in the world fled conflict and violence in 2023. It touched mostly Sudan, Dem. Rep. Congo, Palestine, Ethiopia, and Myanmar. 7.7 million were displaced because of disasters. They touched mostly China, Turkey, Philippines, Somalia and Bangladesh in 2023.

How many internally displaced people are there in the world?

In 2022, they were 75,9 million. They represent a bigger share than international migrants.

In 2023, there were 7,900 internally displaced people mostly because of storm and wildfire.

In 2023, there were 42,000 internally displaced people mostly because of natural disaster events.

In 2023, there were 24,000 internally displaced people in Spain, mostly because of wildfires.

UNACCOMPANIED MINOR

UNDOCUMENTED MIGRANT

How many Unaccompanied Minors?
World

The UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees) estimates that there are currently more than 30 million unaccompanied minors in the world. According to Eurostat, there will be 17,890 unaccompanied minors among asylum seekers in Europe in 2019. In France, there is no reliable data on the precise number of UFMs present in the country. At 31 December 2019, the number of UFMs in the care of the Aide Sociale à l’Enfance (ASE) was estimated at 31,009 by the ministries (this number includes unaccompanied minors entrusted in previous years and still in care, as minors, at 31 December 2019).

France

In 2021, 11,315 UFMs recognised and placed in France (95% boys).

2022 saw an increase in arrivals of unaccompanied foreign minors in France (+30.64% compared with 2021) with the end of travel restrictions linked to Covid-19. 14,782 (592 in Nord and 338 in Pas-de-Calais) unaccompanied minors were taken into care by child welfare services. This number is close to the levels recorded before the pandemic

Most of the Unaccompanied Minors in France come from Mali, Guinea and Ivory Coast.

Italy

By the end of 2022, 24,000 unaccompanied minors were in Italy. They mostly come from Eritrea, Somalia, Nigeria, Gambia, Egypt and Afghanistan.

Spain

While Spain reported just over 3000 unaccompanied minors as refugees in Spain in 2020, the number has risen significantly over the last years with over 11.000 reported in 2022, which is over 3 times the number of the years before.

How is the minority assessed?

Migration history, educational background, identity documents, sometimes bone tests. The assessors don’t necessarily have the knowledge of the country of origin (the civil status, the scholar system, the cultural traditions…) and the assessment lasts 30 minutes to 3 hours and there is the obligation of the presence of a translator. If the minority is recognised, the Unaccompanied Minors are in the Child’s Protection system. If the minority is not recognised, the Unaccompanied Minors have a right to make an appeal to the children’s judge. During the time of their appeal they are in a legal vacuum (no specific rights). AEM software to make sure that a minor doesn’t try in different districts…

The identity of an unaccompanied foreign minor is ascertained by the public security authorities, assisted by cultural mediators, in the presence of the guardian or provisional guardian if one has already been appointed, only after immediate humanitarian assistance has been granted to the minor. As of 30 June 2022 there are 15 595 unaccompanied minors in Italy (an increase of 99.9%).

Unaccompanied minors arriving in Spain fall under the category situations of vulnerability, including minors, single parents with minors, pregnant women, people of advanced age, victims of torture or other violence, and people with disabilities. The assessment procedure for unaccompanied migrant children is done by police stations, authorised immigration offices or refugee centres when they arrive. The procedure starts with an actual age assessment. This assessment is also taken, even if the minor provides documentation and proof of their age. Afterwards if assessed as a minor, they will be handed over to care institutions who are authorised to take guardianship of the minors, or, if assessed as 18 or older, their application is handled as an adult. In case they “aged out” during the asylum application, they are allowed to continue with their application for residence and work permits until age 23. This is a new regulation from 2021.

What are the rights of the Unaccompanied Minors?

InternationalInternational Convention on the Rights of the Child: Article 2: All rights apply to every child without exception. The State has an obligation to protect children against all forms of discrimination and to take positive measures to promote respect for their rights. All children have a right to housing, state protection, right to live in dignity and a right to education.

In France they are protected by the Aide Sociale à l’Enfance (Département). Their rights are at stake when they become 18.

Situation of minors on appeal: neither minors nor adults (rights to nothing)/no figures on refusals to recognise minority and on appeals. The appeal can last 6 months to 2 years.

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) covers the right to non-discrimination, the right to protection, the right to assistance, the right to development, the right to family unity, the right to respect for cultural identity and the right to be heard and participate. Legislative Decree No. 286/98 (Consolidation Act on Immigration) regulates the issuance of residence permits and the exercise of certain fundamental rights by unaccompanied foreign minors.

Since 2021, after a reform of the refugee rights in Spain, unaccompanied children are allowed to apply for residence and work permits starting with age 16. If they became 18 during their application and asylum procedure, they are still allowed to apply for the permits, as long as they are 23 or younger. Their rights are regulated through Immigration Law as well as the Spanish Civil Code which also handles cases of minors at risk, family reception, homeless minors, etc.

What are the reasons for the departure of Unaccompanied Minors?

There is no typical migration trajectory but sociologists Angelina Etiemble and Omar Zanna have created a typology Unaccompanied Minors:

Young people in exile

fleeing a region at war, persecution or oppressive traditions

Mandated migrants

encouraged or forced by their families to go to Europe to study, work and send money back to their families in their countries of origin

Exploited young people

victims of human trafficking or mafia networks

Young runaways

because of conflicts with their family or friends, they run away and cross borders

Young people seeking to find a relative
Aspiring young people

looking for better living conditions, on a personal quest to fulfil themselves as individuals through migration

EXPATRIATE PERSON

EXPATRIATE PERSON

How do you interpret the connotation of the word?

Often used to designate migrants coming from developed countries, it builds up the divide between so-called “good” and “bad” migrants. Being a migrant coming from a rich country is often seen as something valuable, as brave and adventurous. A migrant coming from a poorer country is very rarely designated as expatriate except if this person is from the upper-class.

Are many asylum seekers rejected?

On December 31, 2023, the number of people on the Register of French nationals living outside France was 1,692,978. Registration on the Register of French nationals living outside France is not compulsory.

France Diplomatie, https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/services-aux-francais/l-action-consulaire-missions-chiffres-cles/la-communaute-francaise-a-l-etranger-en-chiffres/

According to the Public Register of Italian Residents Abroad (AIRE), the number of Italians abroad rose from 3,106,251 in 2006 to 4,636,647 in 2015 and so grew by 49% in just 10 years. As of 1 January 2023, 5,933,418 Italians were registered in the Public Register of Italian Residents Abroad (AIRE), with a constantly growing trend (+91% compared to 2006).

By 2024, the number of Spanish citizens living abroad, reached 5.9%, which is almost 3 million Spanish citizens stating their main residence outside of Spain. More than half of these 2.9 million people are residing in the American continents, around 37% in Europe, and only 3.6% in the rest of the world.

STATELESS PERSON

STATELESS PERSON

How can a person end up stateless?

Statelessness may result from one of the following situations: Contradictions between several nationality laws Absence or failure of civil status registers in certain countries.

Which populations could be recognised as stateless?

Rohingyas, Palestinians, ex-USSR citizens…

It is possible to be both stateless and a refugee.

How many stateless people are there?

World: 4,3 million.

The Istituto Nazionale di Statistica (ISTAT) records 609 stateless people (as of 1 January 2022). The national institute of statistics in Italy (ISTAT) records 675 stateless people as of 1 January 2023. However, these data only include those who have been granted stateless status and with a valid residence permit. According to estimates provided by civil society organisations, there are over 3,000 stateless persons in Italy, most of whom belong to the Roma community.

Spain has rules in place which try to prevent and reduce statelessness with children born on Spanish territory automatically being eligible for Spanish citizenship, with children of refugees without permanent residence, able to receive citizenship after one year residence in Spain.

https://index.statelessness.eu/country/spain

DIASPORA

DIASPORA

In what ways has the word evolved in history?

Originally, this term only covered the phenomenon of dispersion itself. Today, by extension, it also refers to all the members of a community across several countries.

Today, in the world, the two largest diasporas formed by migration are characterised by very powerful transnational networks between the different communities: the Chinese diaspora, estimated at between 30 and 50 million people, and the Indian diaspora, estimated at between 16 and over 25 million people. These diasporas are present on several continents and are fed by economic networks and remittances that encourage the permanent mobility of their members.

What are the most common countries of origin of immigrants in general?

The most common countries of birth for immigrants are Algeria (12.7%), Morocco (12%), Portugal (8.6%), Tunisia (4.5%), Italy (4.1%), Turkey (3.6%) and Spain (3.5%). (CF Insee)

Diasporas in France: In 2021, 47.5% of immigrants living in France were born in Africa. 33.1% were born in Europe.

The most numerous communities are Albanian, Bangladeshi, Chinese, Ecuadorian, Egyptian, Filipino, Indian, Moroccan, Moldavian, Nigerian, Pakistani, Peruvian, Senegalese, Sri Lankan, Tunisian and Ukrainian. Most residents of foreign citizenship in Italy in 2022 come from Europe (47%), 23% from Asia and 22.4% from Africa. The top four communities of foreign residents are Romania (1,081,836), Morocco (416,829), Albania (415,088) and China (307,038).

Around 18% of the Spanish population are immigrants. Out of this population, the highest country of immigration in 2022 and beginning of 2023 was Morocco, with over 800.000 Moroccans residing in Spain. Next are Romanians (over 600.000) and Colombians (over 400.000). Immigrants in Spain from other countries with high numbers are Venezuelan, Italian, and citizens from the United Kingdom, albeit there is a clear difference to the three top-most groups.

Other diaspora countries of origin include Mexico (12 million), Russia, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Ukraine.

IOM definition: Migrants or descendants of migrants whose identity and sense of belonging have been shaped by their migratory experience and journey, and who cultivate a collective memory, maintain a link with the territory of origin and a strong group consciousness.

ENVIRONMENTAL MIGRANT

ENVIRONMENTAL MIGRANT

Is this the only term that can be used to describe people fleeing their homes for climatic reasons?

We can also talk about eco-migrants, climate refugees, climate displaced people… Depending on one’s point of view, a different term will be used. There is no agreed definition. The UNHCR excludes the term ‘refugee’ because there is no environmental reason in the Geneva Convention (mandate logic), while the IOM refers to ‘environmental migrants’. Political scientist François Gémenne prefers the term ‘refugee’, which highlights the political responsibility for the treatment of these people.  

Minimal integration into the Paris Agreement (COP21): the term ‘migrant’ appears only once in §11 of the Preamble. + ‘mobility’ in §49.

For the moment, the majority are internally displaced persons. 

Which countries are most vulnerable to climate change?

Bangladesh, Guinea Bissau, Sierra Leone, Haiti, Cambodia, the Philippines, Ethiopia, etc.

First of all, it is important to understand that not all ‘environmental migration’ is due solely to the effects of climate change, or even natural hazards (earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions), but that ‘environmental’ displacement is also often linked to human activity: pollution, industrial accidents, dispossession of land, displacement of villages in the case of mining (e.g. the gold mine in the Sadiola commune in Mali). In all these cases, migration appears to be the ultimate solution to degradation, whatever the cause. In this respect, the IOM recommends that migration should be seen as a strategy for anticipating hazards and as part of the mechanisms for adapting to environmental problems.